UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology (UEE)
University of California, Los Angeles
ISBN: 978-0-615-21403-0
Egyptology has as its object of study the history, practices, and conceptual categories of a culture that was remarkably prolific in terms of written texts, art, architecture, and other forms of material culture. The knowledge of Egyptologists, archaeologists, linguists, geologists, and all other professionals who are involved in research related to Ancient Egypt reflect the interdisciplinary approach that is needed to make sense of such a wealth of information. The peer-reviewed articles of the UEE are written by the world's leading scholars.
In the coming decade we will continue to build the content of the UEE, while a separate web site, the UEE Full Version, will be available starting in 2010. The full version will have enhanced searches, such as a map-search functionality, alphabetical and subject browsing, in-text links, explanations of terminology for non-professionals, an image archive, and Virtual Reality reconstructions. In addition, a Data-Access Level is under development, which links articles with the results of original research. Information on the development of the UEE Full Version can be found at http://www.uee.ucla.edu.Articles published since the beginning of 2016
Articles published since the beginning of 2015:
Late Antiquity(2018)Late antique Egypt ran from the reign of the Roman emperor Diocletian (284-305 CE) to the Arab conquest of Egypt (641 CE). During this period, Egypt was part of the eastern Roman Empire and was ruled from Constantinople from the founding of that city in the 320s CE. Culturally, Egypt’s elite were part of the wider Roman world, sharing in its classical education. However, several developments marked Egypt’s distinctiveness in this period. These developments included the flourishing of literature in Coptic, the final written form of the native language, and the creation and rapid growth of several forms of...
Microhistory(2018)Microhistory is a rather ambiguous term, usually referring to the lives, activities, and cultural values of common people, rarely evoked in official sources. In the case of ancient Egypt, both the urban and village spheres provide some clues about the existence, social relations, spiritual expectations, and life conditions of farmers, craftspersons, and “marginal” populations (such as herders), and also about “invisible” elites that played so important a role in the stability of the kingdom. In some instances, exceptional archives (the Ramesside tomb-robbery papyri, Papyrus Turin 1887, recording the...
Radjedef to the Eighth Dynasty(2017)Our sources for the chronology of the Old Kingdom comprise a mere handful of contemporary written documents, supplemented by radiocarbon dates, some of which have recently been recalibrated by Oxford University. The bulk of historical evidence, deriving primarily from residential cemeteries of the ruling kings and the elite, as well as from provincial sites, shows that during large portions of the Old Kingdom Egypt represented a relatively centralized state with a well-structured administrative system. Until the end of the Fourth Dynasty Egypt’s royal family exercised a role of complete authority...
Metaphor(2017)When tracing the epistemological but also thematic development of metaphor studies in Egyptology, what can be seen is a change from a typological perspective, which sought to categorize both motifs and metaphor types, to a more cognitive perspective, which was more interested in the processes behind the linguistic phenomena. In the last few years there has also been increased interest in the development of metaphors in pan-textual as well as multimodal perspective and in the usage and extent of metaphors in all range of phenomena, such as textual, graphemic, and even pictorial media.
Reserve Head(2017)The enigmatic reserve heads of the Old Kingdom (2670-2168 BCE) in Egypt have been the topic of much discussion and debate since their discovery, primarily on the Giza Plateau, at the turn of the twentieth century. Their purpose and meaning to the ancient Egyptians confounded the first excavators who discovered them (de Morgan, Borchardt, Reisner, and Junker), and have puzzled the later Egyptian art historians, archaeologists, and Egyptologists who have studied them over the past century. This is mainly because the Egyptians did not leave a record for their use or function and because the heads were...
History of Egypt in Palestine(2016)
Egyptian interactions and contact with Palestine began as early as the fourth millennium BCE, and continued, in varying forms and at times far more intensively than others, until the conquest of the ancient world by Alexander the Great. Numerous data—textual, material, archaeological—found in both Egyptian and southern Levantine contexts illustrate the diverse spectrum of interaction and contact between the two regions, which ranged from colonialism, to imperial expansion, to diplomatic relations, to commerce. By virtue of geographic proximity, economic interests, and occasionally political...
Ration System(2016)The distribution of rations can be found in documents from different period of the Egyptian history but the general features of the ration system is not easy to trace. Most of the sources are the more or less fragmentary lists of wages/payments that reflect various conditions, such as status of the recipients, period to which the payment corresponds etc, that are not always known to us. Other documents provide us with categories of allowances ascribed to the workmen and officials who participated on the same project. A few traces of a systematic approach can be recognized in the evidence, for instance...
Meroitic(2016)The Meroitic language is known from more than two thousands inscriptions found in the northern part of Sudan and in Egyptian Nubia. Although it was written only during the Kingdom of Meroe (300 BC – AD 350), the language is already attested in Egyptian transcriptions of personal names from the second millennium BC on. Meroitic was written in two scripts, cursive and hieroglyphic, both derived from Egyptian scripts. The system is alphasyllabic and uses twenty-three signs plus a word-divider made of two or three dots. The scripts were deciphered in 1907-1911 by F. Ll. Griffith, but knowledge of the...
Second Intermediate Period(2016)In the Second Intermediate Period (late 13th to 17th Dynasty), the territories that had been ruled by the centralized Egyptian state—including Lower Nubia—were divided between the kingdom of Kerma, the Theban kingdom, the kingdom of Avaris, and possibly other little known political entities. A gap in the written documentation calls for a wide use of sigillographic and archaeological evidence in the reconstruction of the history of this period. Material culture, art, and administration developed independently in different parts of Egypt due to a lack of a centralized state. In the Theban kingdom, the...
Traditional Egyptian I (Dynamics)(2016)The problem of the phenomenon referred to as égyptien de tradition (Traditional Egyptian) derives from a basic and long-made observation: a great many texts from ancient Egypt implement an obviously anachronistic and partly artificial language, reflecting elements of earlier stages of Egyptian in varying proportions and degrees while also reflecting elements of the contemporary language. Texts continued to be written in égyptien de tradition, either on easy-to-handle supports such as papyri, tablets, and ostraca, or on durable objects and monuments, until the end of Pharaonic civilization.
Ba(2016)The ba was often written with the sign of a saddle-billed stork or a human-headed falcon and translated into modern languages as the “soul.” It counts among key Egyptian religious terms and concepts, since it described one of the individual components or manifestations in the ancient Egyptian view of both human and divine beings. The notion of the ba itself encompassed many different aspects, spanning from the manifestation of divine powers to the impression that one makes on the world. The complexity of this term also reveals important aspects of the nature of and changes within ancient Egyptian religion.
Tell el-Amarna(2016)Tell el-Amarna is situated in middle Egypt and is the location of the New Kingdom city of Akhetaten, founded by Akhenaten in c. 1347 BCE as the cult home for the Aten. Occupied only briefly, it is our most complete example of an ancient Egyptian city, at which a contemporaneous urban landscape of cult and ceremonial buildings, palaces, houses, cemeteries, and public spaces has been exposed. It is an invaluable source for the study of both Akhenaten’s reign and of ancient Egyptian urbanism. The site has an extensive excavation history, and work continues there today.
Traditional Egyptian II (Ptolemaic, Roman)(2016)From 404 BCE - 394 CE hieroglyphic texts were in general composed in the high-status language variety termed Traditional Egyptian. This was used exclusively in religious and sacerdotal contexts and is as such opposed to Demotic, which served both as a spoken and as a written language. Traditional Egyptian is a reflex of how the late scribes perceived the classical language. The result is a morphologically impoverished Egyptian (in comparison with the classical language), in combination with a phonology that corresponds largely to Demotic. Traditional Egyptian served as a vehicle for many new...
Articles published before 2015
Late Antiquity(2018)Late antique Egypt ran from the reign of the Roman emperor Diocletian (284-305 CE) to the Arab conquest of Egypt (641 CE). During this period, Egypt was part of the eastern Roman Empire and was ruled from Constantinople from the founding of that city in the 320s CE. Culturally, Egypt’s elite were part of the wider Roman world, sharing in its classical education. However, several developments marked Egypt’s distinctiveness in this period. These developments included the flourishing of literature in Coptic, the final written form of the native language, and the creation and rapid growth of several forms of...
Microhistory(2018)Microhistory is a rather ambiguous term, usually referring to the lives, activities, and cultural values of common people, rarely evoked in official sources. In the case of ancient Egypt, both the urban and village spheres provide some clues about the existence, social relations, spiritual expectations, and life conditions of farmers, craftspersons, and “marginal” populations (such as herders), and also about “invisible” elites that played so important a role in the stability of the kingdom. In some instances, exceptional archives (the Ramesside tomb-robbery papyri, Papyrus Turin 1887, recording the...
Radjedef to the Eighth Dynasty(2017)Our sources for the chronology of the Old Kingdom comprise a mere handful of contemporary written documents, supplemented by radiocarbon dates, some of which have recently been recalibrated by Oxford University. The bulk of historical evidence, deriving primarily from residential cemeteries of the ruling kings and the elite, as well as from provincial sites, shows that during large portions of the Old Kingdom Egypt represented a relatively centralized state with a well-structured administrative system. Until the end of the Fourth Dynasty Egypt’s royal family exercised a role of complete authority...
Metaphor(2017)When tracing the epistemological but also thematic development of metaphor studies in Egyptology, what can be seen is a change from a typological perspective, which sought to categorize both motifs and metaphor types, to a more cognitive perspective, which was more interested in the processes behind the linguistic phenomena. In the last few years there has also been increased interest in the development of metaphors in pan-textual as well as multimodal perspective and in the usage and extent of metaphors in all range of phenomena, such as textual, graphemic, and even pictorial media.
Reserve Head(2017)The enigmatic reserve heads of the Old Kingdom (2670-2168 BCE) in Egypt have been the topic of much discussion and debate since their discovery, primarily on the Giza Plateau, at the turn of the twentieth century. Their purpose and meaning to the ancient Egyptians confounded the first excavators who discovered them (de Morgan, Borchardt, Reisner, and Junker), and have puzzled the later Egyptian art historians, archaeologists, and Egyptologists who have studied them over the past century. This is mainly because the Egyptians did not leave a record for their use or function and because the heads were...
History of Egypt in Palestine(2016)
Egyptian interactions and contact with Palestine began as early as the fourth millennium BCE, and continued, in varying forms and at times far more intensively than others, until the conquest of the ancient world by Alexander the Great. Numerous data—textual, material, archaeological—found in both Egyptian and southern Levantine contexts illustrate the diverse spectrum of interaction and contact between the two regions, which ranged from colonialism, to imperial expansion, to diplomatic relations, to commerce. By virtue of geographic proximity, economic interests, and occasionally political...
Ration System(2016)The distribution of rations can be found in documents from different period of the Egyptian history but the general features of the ration system is not easy to trace. Most of the sources are the more or less fragmentary lists of wages/payments that reflect various conditions, such as status of the recipients, period to which the payment corresponds etc, that are not always known to us. Other documents provide us with categories of allowances ascribed to the workmen and officials who participated on the same project. A few traces of a systematic approach can be recognized in the evidence, for instance...
Meroitic(2016)The Meroitic language is known from more than two thousands inscriptions found in the northern part of Sudan and in Egyptian Nubia. Although it was written only during the Kingdom of Meroe (300 BC – AD 350), the language is already attested in Egyptian transcriptions of personal names from the second millennium BC on. Meroitic was written in two scripts, cursive and hieroglyphic, both derived from Egyptian scripts. The system is alphasyllabic and uses twenty-three signs plus a word-divider made of two or three dots. The scripts were deciphered in 1907-1911 by F. Ll. Griffith, but knowledge of the...
Second Intermediate Period(2016)In the Second Intermediate Period (late 13th to 17th Dynasty), the territories that had been ruled by the centralized Egyptian state—including Lower Nubia—were divided between the kingdom of Kerma, the Theban kingdom, the kingdom of Avaris, and possibly other little known political entities. A gap in the written documentation calls for a wide use of sigillographic and archaeological evidence in the reconstruction of the history of this period. Material culture, art, and administration developed independently in different parts of Egypt due to a lack of a centralized state. In the Theban kingdom, the...
Traditional Egyptian I (Dynamics)(2016)The problem of the phenomenon referred to as égyptien de tradition (Traditional Egyptian) derives from a basic and long-made observation: a great many texts from ancient Egypt implement an obviously anachronistic and partly artificial language, reflecting elements of earlier stages of Egyptian in varying proportions and degrees while also reflecting elements of the contemporary language. Texts continued to be written in égyptien de tradition, either on easy-to-handle supports such as papyri, tablets, and ostraca, or on durable objects and monuments, until the end of Pharaonic civilization.
Ba(2016)The ba was often written with the sign of a saddle-billed stork or a human-headed falcon and translated into modern languages as the “soul.” It counts among key Egyptian religious terms and concepts, since it described one of the individual components or manifestations in the ancient Egyptian view of both human and divine beings. The notion of the ba itself encompassed many different aspects, spanning from the manifestation of divine powers to the impression that one makes on the world. The complexity of this term also reveals important aspects of the nature of and changes within ancient Egyptian religion.
Tell el-Amarna(2016)Tell el-Amarna is situated in middle Egypt and is the location of the New Kingdom city of Akhetaten, founded by Akhenaten in c. 1347 BCE as the cult home for the Aten. Occupied only briefly, it is our most complete example of an ancient Egyptian city, at which a contemporaneous urban landscape of cult and ceremonial buildings, palaces, houses, cemeteries, and public spaces has been exposed. It is an invaluable source for the study of both Akhenaten’s reign and of ancient Egyptian urbanism. The site has an extensive excavation history, and work continues there today.
Traditional Egyptian II (Ptolemaic, Roman)(2016)From 404 BCE - 394 CE hieroglyphic texts were in general composed in the high-status language variety termed Traditional Egyptian. This was used exclusively in religious and sacerdotal contexts and is as such opposed to Demotic, which served both as a spoken and as a written language. Traditional Egyptian is a reflex of how the late scribes perceived the classical language. The result is a morphologically impoverished Egyptian (in comparison with the classical language), in combination with a phonology that corresponds largely to Demotic. Traditional Egyptian served as a vehicle for many new...
Violence(2015)Throughout time, Egyptian sources display divergent attitudes towards violence expressing the belief that some situations of violence were positive and to be encouraged, while others were to be avoided. Sanctioned violence could be employed for a variety of reasons—the severity of which ranged from inflicting blows to gruesome death. Violence was part of the preternatural realm, notably as Egyptians attempted to thwart potential violence in the afterlife. While the average Egyptian was supposed to eschew violence, kings and their representatives were expected to engage in violent acts in many...
- 1 supplemental PDF
Life Expectancy(2015)The analysis of life expectancy and longevity is one approach to analysing diversity in the population of ancient Egypt. It is, however, important to understand the difficulties in such calculations and in the data from which such calculations are derived. Adult age is difficult to determine either from documentary or biological sources, so average age-at-death is particularly hard to determine. This discussion explores the issues surrounding demography, the potential sources for such data, and suggests ways that life expectancy in Egypt might be assessed and integrated with broader archaeological and Egyptological...
Persian Period(2015)In the last two centuries before the arrival of Alexander the Great, Persia invaded Egypt twice and administered it as a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Although the Ptolemies later demonized the Persians, and most traces of their rule were systematically removed, the history of this fascinating period can be reconstructed thanks to written sources from different languages (hieroglyphic, Demotic, Aramaic, Old Persian, Greek) and the multicultural archaeological record. These periods of foreign domination helped solidify Egypt's national identity during the intervening Late Period (Dynasties 28-30) and set the...
Cognitive Linguistics(2015)Cognitive linguistics is an influential branch of linguistics, which has played an increasing role in different areas of Egyptology over the last couple of decades. Concepts from cognitive linguistics have been especially influential in the study of determinatives/classifiers in the hieroglyphic script, but they have also proven useful to elucidate a number of other questions, both narrowly linguistic and more broadly cultural historical.
Pyramid Age: Huni to Radjedef(2015)The early to mid-4th Dynasty (c. 2600-2500 BCE) stands out as a peak of monumentality in the early historical periods of Pharaonic Egypt. Within 100 years, Sneferu, Khufu, and Radjedef built pyramids on an unprecedented scale at Maidum, Dahshur, Giza, and Abu Rawash. Pyramid construction absorbed enormous resources and reflects a new quality of large-scale organization and centralization. Pyramids are the nucleus of Old Kingdom court cemeteries. The early 4th Dynasty examples were a template for...
Amarna Period(2015)The reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten/Amenhotep IV is controversial. Although substantial evidence for this period has been preserved, it is inconclusive on many important details. Nonetheless, the revolutionary nature of Akhenaten’s rule is salient to the modern student of ancient Egypt. The king’s devotion to and promotion of only one deity, the sun disk Aten, is a break from traditional Egyptian religion. Many theories developed about this era are often influenced by the history of its rediscovery and by recognition that Akhenaten’s immediate successors rejected his rule.
Akkadian from Egypt(2015)Akkadian, an ancient Semitic language from Mesopotamia written in the cuneiform script, wasemployed as a diplomatic lingua franca between the major powers of the Late Bronze Age.Akkadian from Egypt defines the language of the Akkadian texts that originated in Egypt. Thesewere probably written by Egyptian scribes. On various linguistic levels ranging from phonology tomorpho-syntax, Akkadian from Egypt differs from contemporary varieties of Akkadian. In severalcases, these differences can be analyzed as probably representing interferences with Egyptian, thenative language of the scribes. Rather than as...
Transition 18th–19th dynasty(2015)The transition between the 18th and 19th Dynasties, a period beginning with the reign of Aye and concluding with the reign of Sety I, represents the conclusion to the tumultuous Amarna Period and the beginning of the stability and prosperity of the following Ramesside Period. The rule of individuals coming from non-royal families—Aye, Horemheb, and Ramesses I—gives way to a strong dynastic succession with Sety I. Limited monumental construction during the short reigns of Aye and Ramesses I can be contrasted with the extensive building at Karnak during the reign of Horemheb and the...
Computational Linguistics in Egyptology(2015)Computer-assisted approaches to text and language, referred to as computational linguistics, represent a developing field in Egyptology. One of the main concerns has been and continues to be the encoding of hieroglyphic signs for computers. The historical standard in this respect is the Manuel de Codage; a Unicode encoding has also been recently developed. Computer-assisted approaches also provide helpful tools notably for creating, annotating, and exploiting text databases. After pioneering work in the 1960s, a number of large text databases have been developed since the 1990s, for example, the Thesaurus...
Old Egyptian(2015)Old Egyptian is the earliest stage of the ancient Egyptian language that is preserved in extensive texts. It represents a dialect as well as a historical stage of the language, showing grammatical similarities with and distinctions from later ones. One particular issue in studying Old Egyptian lies in the uneven nature of the Old Kingdom written record, which mostly consists of texts relating to the funerary domain.
Grandet, Pierre: Early–mid 20th dynasty, 2014
Janák, Jíří: Saddle-Billed Stork (Ba-Bird), 2014
Midant-Reynes, Beatrix: Prehistoric Regional Cultures, 2014
Moyer, Ian: Egyptian History in the Classical Historiographers, 2014
Mueller-Wollermann, Renate: End of the Old Kingdom, 2014
Popko, Lutz: History-Writing in Ancient Egypt, 2014
Raue, Dietrich: Sanctuary of Heqaib, 2014
Wilkinson, Toby: Dynasties 2 and 3, 2014
Campagno, Marcelo P: Late Fourth Millennium BCE, 2013
Darnell, John C: Wadi el-Hol, 2013
Emerit, Sibylle: Music and Musicians, 2013
Fiore Marochetti, Elisa: Gebelein, 2013
Gallet, Laetitia: Karnak: the Temple of Amun-Ra-Who-Hears-Prayers, 2013
Grajetzki, Wolfram: Late Middle Kingdom, 2013
Harrell, James A.: Ornamental Stones, 2013
Janák, Jíří: Akh, 2013
Janák, Jíří: Northern Bald Ibis (Akh-Bird), 2013
Köpp-Junk, Heidi: Travel, 2013
Ladynin, Ivan: Late Dynastic Period, 2013
Lippert, Sandra: Inheritance, 2013
Moeller, Nadine: Edfu, 2013
Moreno Garcia, Juan Carlos: Land Donations, 2013
Pfeiffer, Stefan: Egypt and Greece Before Alexander, 2013
Popko, Lutz: Late Second Intermediate Period to Early New Kingdom, 2013
Toivari-Viitala, Jaana: Marriage and Divorce, 2013
Uljas, Sami: Linguistic consciousness, 2013
Vinson, Steve: Boats (Use of), 2013
Vinson, Steve: Transportation, 2013
Vittmann, Günter: Personal Names: Function and Significance, 2013
Vittmann, Günter: Personal Names: Structures and Patterns, 2013
De Meyer, Marleen; Minas-Nerpel, Martina: Shenhur, Temple of, 2012
DuQuesne, Terence: Jmjwt, 2012
Grajetzki, Wolfram: Qau el-Kebir, 2012
Harrell, James A.: Building Stones, 2012
Harrell, James: Gemstones, 2012
Harrell, James A.: Utilitarian Stones, 2012
Katary, Sally: Land Tenure (to the End of the Ptolemaic Period), 2012
Kockelmann, Holger: Philae, 2012
Kucharek, Andrea: Gebel el-Silsila, 2012
Lippert, Sandra: Law Courts, 2012
Lippert, Sandra: Law: Definitions and Codification, 2012
Loprieno, Antonio: Slavery and Servitude, 2012
Milde, Henk: Shabtis, 2012
Moreno Garcia, Juan Carlos: Deir el-Gabrawi, 2012
Moreno Garcia, Juan Carlos: Households, 2012
Pantalacci, Laure: Coptos, 2012
Riggs, Christina; Baines, John: Ethnicity, 2012
Roth, Silke: Harem, 2012
Stadler, Martin A: Thoth, 2012
Budde, Dagmar: Epithets, Divine, 2011
Emery, Virginia L.: Mud-Brick Architecture, 2011
Hallof, Jochen: Esna, 2011
Hallof, Jochen: Esna-North, 2011
Katary, Sally: Taxation, 2011
Kockelmann, Holger: Birth House (Mammisi), 2011
Kuhlmann, Klaus P.: Throne, 2011
Laboury, Dimitri: Amarna Art, 2011
Manassa, Colleen: El-Mo’alla to El-Deir, 2011
McClain, Brett: Cosmogony (Late to Ptolemaic and Roman Periods), 2011
Millet, Marie; Masson, Aurélia: Karnak: Settlements, 2011
Moreno Garcia, Juan Carlos: Village, 2011
Nicholson, Paul: Glass Working, Use and Discard, 2011
Schulz, Regine: Block Statue, 2011
Sweeney, Deborah: Sex and Gender, 2011
Toivari-Viitala, Jaana: Deir el-Medina (Development), 2011
Zivie-Coche, Christiane: Foreign Deities in Egypt, 2011
Bloxam, Elizabeth: Quarrying and Mining (Stone), 2010
Borg, Barbara E.: Painted Funerary Portraits, 2010
Brand, Peter: Reuse and Restoration, 2010
Brand, Peter: Usurpation of Monuments, 2010
Budde, Dagmar: Child Deities, 2010
Darnell, John: Opet Festival, 2010
Guilhou, Nadine: Myth of the Heavenly Cow, 2010
Hays, Harold: Funerary Rituals (Pharaonic Period), 2010
Hikade, Thomas: Hiw (Predynastic), 2010
Hikade, Thomas: Stone Tool Production, 2010
Ikram, Salima: Mummification, 2010
Kahl, Jochem: Archaism, 2010
Laboury, Dimitri: Portrait versus Ideal Image, 2010
Lazaridis, Nikolaos: Education and Apprenticeship, 2010
Leprohon, Ronald: Patterns of Royal Name-giving, 2010
Lucarelli, Rita: Demons (benevolent and malevolent), 2010
Meyer-Dietrich, Erika: Recitation, Speech Acts, and Declamation, 2010
Nicholson, Paul: Kilns and Firing Structures, 2010
Poo, Mu-Chou: Liquids in Temple Ritual, 2010
Riggs, Christina: Body, 2010
Riggs, Christina: Funerary rituals (Ptolemaic and Roman Periods), 2010
Spencer, Neal: Shrine, 2010
Spieser, Cathie: Cartouche, 2010
Sullivan, Elaine: Karnak: Development of the Temple of Amun-Ra, 2010
Teeter, Emily: Feathers, 2010
von Lieven, Alexandra: Deified Humans, 2010
Campagno, Marcelo P: Kinship and Family Relations, 2009
Coppens, Filip: Temple Festivals of the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, 2009
Dodson, Aidan: Rituals Related to Animal Cults, 2009
Emery, Virginia L.: Mud-Brick, 2009
Gillam, Robyn: Drama, 2009
Haring, Ben: Economy, 2009
Harvey, Julia: Wooden Statuary, 2009
Huyge, Dirk: Rock Art, 2009
Leach, Bridget: Papyrus Manufacture, 2009
Manniche, Lise: Perfume, 2009
Meyer-Dietrich, Erika: Dance, 2009
Nicholson, Paul: Faience Technology, 2009
Nicholson, Paul T.: Pottery Production, 2009
Phillips, Jacke S.: Ostrich Eggshell, 2009
Pinch, Geraldine; Waraksa, Elizabeth A.: Votive Practices, 2009
Roth, Silke: Queen, 2009
Shortland, Andrew: Glass Production, 2009
Smith, Mark: Democratization of the Afterlife, 2009
Stevens, Anna: Domestic religious practices, 2009
Stevenson, Alice: Palettes, 2009
Stevenson, Alice: Predynastic Burials, 2009
Veldmeijer, André J.: Cordage Production, 2009
Vinson, Steve: Seafaring, 2009
Wengrow, David: Predynastic Art, 2009
Cooney, Kathlyn M: Scarab, 2008
Coulon, Laurent: Famine, 2008
Cruz-Uribe, Eugene: Graffiti (Figural), 2008
Enmarch, Roland: Theodicy, 2008
Exell, Karen: Ancestor Bust, 2008
Lazaridis, Nikolaos: Ethics, 2008
Luiselli, Michela: Personal Piety (modern theories related to), 2008
Moreno García, Juan Carlos: Estates (Old Kingdom), 2008
Muhlestein, Kerry: Execration Ritual, 2008
Naguib, Saphinaz-Amal: Survivals of Pharaonic Religious Practices in Contemporary Coptic Christianity., 2008
Servajean, Frédéric: Duality, 2008
Smith, Mark: Osiris and the Deceased, 2008
Stadler, Martin: Judgment after Death (Negative Confession), 2008
Stadler, Martin: Procession, 2008
Stevenson, Alice: Mace, 2008
Veldmeijer, André J.: Leatherworking, 2008
Waraksa, Elizabeth: Female Figurines (Pharaonic Period), 2008
Wilkinson, Richard H.: Anthropomorphic Deities, 2008
Zivie-Coche, Christiane: Late Period Temples, 2008
Posts
Stumble It!
No comments:
Post a Comment