Sunday, December 20, 2015

Open Access Journal: Chronique Archéologique en Syrie - الوقائع الأثرية في سورية

 [First posted in AWOL 10 October 2013, updated 20 December 2015]

Chronique Archéologique en Syrie - الوقائع الأثرية في سورية
The DGAM seeks to provide full copies of all of its publications on its Website in order to supply researchers and those within the archaeological field with easy access to the full and entire publications of the DGAM.

As a first step, the six issues of the Syrian Archaeological Chronicles Magazine are made available on the Website, and it is possible to keep a PDF copy of the magazine by downloading the issues here or clicking the Research and Publications icon on the right side of the home page of the Website.
«Chronique archéologique en Syrie» is an archaeological and historical revue, published by Al-Bassel Centre for archaeological, and training and research- The Directorate General of An- tiquities and Museums- Ministry of Culture in the Syrian Arab Republic. It aims to publish the excavations and investigations reports of the national, foreign and joint missions working in the archaeological sites in Syria, in order to contribute in publishing the latest discoveries and making the scientific subjects in the hands of the researchers.
تقارير مواسم التنقيب
العدد الأول العدد الثاني كامل العدد Full issue


العدد الثالث كامل العدد Full issue العدد الرابع كامل العدد Full issue
العدد الخامس كامل العدد Full issue العدد السادس كامل العدد Full issue

Attalus: Over 25,000 links to Greek & Latin authors on the web

Attalus: Over 30,000 links to Greek & Latin authors on the web
http://www.attalus.org/dying.jpg
This site contains detailed lists of events and sources for the history of the Hellenistic world and the Roman republic. It includes links to online translations of many of the sources, as well as new translations of some works which have not previously been easily available in English. To look at what's available, click on one of the links below. 
This site contains detailed information about the written sources for Greek and Roman history in the period between the conquests of Alexander the Great and the start of the Roman Empire. Its geographical scope is Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East - essentially, the countries which were later part of the Roman Empire (see map). Its scope in time is currently from 322 to 42 B.C.

  How to use this site
  Overview of sources
   
  A - Z
  Attalus, the king
  Background Info.
  Inscriptions & Papyri
  Latin Texts
  Index of References
  Related Sites
  What's New? 

Saturday, December 19, 2015

Papyri.info updates: January-November 2015

Papyri.info updates
Dear Colleagues,

Here is a brief overview of the activity in papyri.info from January to November of the calendar year 2015.
The entry of the following volumes has been completed:
P.Heid. X (with thanks to Johanna Egerer)
P.Oxy. LXXIX (with thanks to Federica Micucci and Danae Bafa)
P.Oxy. LXXX (with thanks to Danae Bafa)
PSI XVI  (with thanks to Federica Micucci)

It is worth mentioning that two texts have now been included in papyri.info and are searchable for the first time in DDbDP. They had not originally been included all those decades ago. These are
http://papyri.info/ddbdp/jur.pap;;36
a particularly interesting contract of sale from Kopanis in Parthia.
And
http://papyri.info/ddbdp/p.ryl;1;12
a certificate of pagan sacrifice which was originally published amongst the Christian texts in P.Ryl. I and had been missed.

There is ongoing work on the entry of O.Petr.Mus., P.Monts.Roca IV, P.Prag. III amongst others.
P.Köln XI - XIII are in the process of being finished and will be done within the next few weeks.
SB XXVI is also being completed.

Since work began on the entry of texts through the editor of papyri.info in 2010, 29 volumes have been completely entered. A full list of these can be found at:
http://147.142.225.252/paptrac/wiki/papInfoListVolAddita

Another list may be found of those volumes which still have to be completed:
http://147.142.225.252/paptrac/wiki/papInfoListVolAddenda
in many cases only a few texts remain to be completed. Thanks to a number of volunteers it is possible to organise filling these gaps.

The entry of Coptic is continuing well.
CPR XX has been completed. Much of CPR II and IV have been entered as well as numerous bilinugal texts. There is ongoing work on O.Frange and P.KRU. In this area huge thanks for their steadfast work are due to Anne Boudhors, Esther Garel, Georg Schmelz, Maria-Jesus Albarran and Alain Delattre who do the most lifting.

SB XXVIII will added to HGV and ready for entry at the beginning of next year.

All the best

R. Ast, L. Berkes, James M.S. Cowey, J.D. Sosin

Friday, December 18, 2015

Open Access Monograph Series: Amheida [NYU Excavations at Amheida in Egypt's Dakhleh Oasis]

Amheida [NYU Excavations at Amheida in Egypt's Dakhleh Oasis]

    Amheida I: Ostraka from Trimithis 1

    amheida-advert
    Catalog and analysis of 455 inscribed ostraka from the NYU excavations at Amheida, Egypt
    Roger S. Bagnall and Giovanni R. RuffiniNYU Press, 2012. ISBN13: 978-0814745267.more: publisher | worldcat | full-text | jstor
    At left: figure 9 from online version of text.

    Amheida II: A Late Romano-Egyptian House in Dakhla Oasis, Amheida House B2

    amheida-advert
    Multi-disciplinary report on a Late Roman House from the NYU excavations at Amheida, Egypt
    Anna L. Boozer, with contributions from Douglas V. Campana, Angela Cervi, Pam J. Crabtree, Paola Davoli, Delphine Dixneuf, David Ratzan, Giovanni Ruffini, Ursula Thanheiser, and Johannes Walter
    NYU Press, 2015. ISBN13: 978-1479880348.
    more: publisher | worldcat | full-text | jstor

    This archaeological report provides a comprehensive study of the excavations carried out at House B2, a late third to early fourth century house at Trimithis (Roman Amheida) between 2005 and 2007. The excavations at Amheida in Egypt’s Western Desert, begun in 2001 under the aegis of Columbia University and sponsored by NYU since 2008, are investigating all aspects of social life and material culture at the administrative center of ancient Trimithis. This volume presents and discusses the architecture, artifacts and ecofacts recovered from House B2 in a holistic manner, which has never before been attempted in a full report on the excavation of a Romano-Egyptian house. The primary aim of this volume is to combine an architectural and material-based study with an explicitly contextual and theoretical analysis. In so doing, it develops a methodology and presents a case study of how the rich material remains of Romano-Egyptian houses may be used to investigate the relationship between domestic remains and social identity.

    Amheida III: Ostraka from Trimithis, Volume 2. Greek Texts from the 2008-2013 Seasons

    amheida-advert
    Rodney Ast and Roger S. Bagnall, with contributions from Clementina Caputo and Rafaella Cribiore. ISAW & NYU Press, 2016. ISBN13: 978-1-4798-5374-8
    more: publisher
    This is the second volume of ostraka from the excavations conducted at the site of Amheida, ancient Trimithis. It adds 491 items to the growing corpus of primary texts from the site. The first installment, Amheida I: Ostraka from Trimithis, contained ostraka from the excavation seasons 2004–2007; the present volume picks up from there through 2013. While the core of the volume is the publication of primary textual evidence, the analytical chapters that precede the catalog make important contributions to understanding the role of ostraka in the life of a Late Roman town. Issues addressed include tenancy, the administration of water, governance, the identification of individuals in the archaeological record, and the uses of personal names. Additionally, the chapter "Ceramic Fabrics and Shapes” by Clementina Caputo is a methodologically rigorous study that investigates the concerns that went into the selection of particular sherds as suitable bearers of text.


       

      New at the Griffith Institute

      Accessions of the Griffith Institute Archive 2015
      http://www.griffith.ox.ac.uk/images/griffith-institute-logo.gif

      2015

      The personal diary of Mrs Minnie C. Burton (1876-1957), wife of the British archaeologist and photographer Harry Burton, kept from the 4th of May 1922 to the 20th of October 1926. Acquired at auction thanks to two grants from the Friends of the National Libraries and the Heritage Lottery Fund. See more.

      Rubbing and drawing of the emblem of the 16th nome of Lower Egypt, relating to the creation of the Clarendon Press's (Gardiner's) hieroglyphic font by Nina (1881-1965) and Norman de Garis Davies (1865-1941) and Sir Alan H. Gardiner (1879-1963) for use in Gardiner's Egyptian Grammar, which have been added to the material accessioned in 2009. Formerly in the possession of the late Mr D. Wishart and presented by his son Mr A. Wishart.
      Mr Robert Thomas Rundle Clark's (1909-1970) research and teaching papers, including notebooks, notes and annotated offprints, as well as some lantern slides, which have joined the material on the iconography of Osiris accessioned in 1971. Presented by his daughter Mrs A. Trowell.
      Some additional photographs and family papers of Mr Wilfrid Joseph Dilley (1874-1941), which complements the material accessioned in 2014. Presented by his granddaughter Mrs C. J. Sleight.
      Some non-Egyptological additional papers of Mr Terence DuQuesne (1942-2014). Formerly in the possession of his publisher Mr D. Jacobs and presented by Mr J. Matthews.
      An additional folder containing notes and photographs of New Kingdom stelae by Professor Alan Schulman (1930-2000), which has been added to the rest of his papers accessioned in 2008, 2009 and 2012. Presented by Dr D. Sweeney.
      Some additional negatives, photographs, notes and drawings by Mr Walter Segal (1907-1985) of furniture in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, the British Museum and gathered from publications, which have joined the rest of his material accessioned in 2008 and 2014. Presented by Dr M. Eaton-Krauss.
      A few additions to the Tutankhamun Archive, including: three copies of the poster of the Semmel Concerts' exhibition 'Tutankhamun: His Tomb and His Treasures' in Manchester, internal transfer; a complete set in its original wooden box and a group of duplicates of plates of Tutankhamun’s painted box: Reproduced in colour from the original in the Cairo Museum, by Nina M. Davies and with explanatory text by Alan H. Gardiner (Oxford: Griffith Institute, 1962), internal transfer; a London Underground tube/train advertisement from the 1970s which was on display in the 'Discovering TutAnkhAmun' exhibition at the Ashmolean Museum in 2014, presented by Prof J. Baines; a portfolio with newspaper and magazine cuttings, mainly from the contemporary press, including The New York Times and The Illustrated London News, relating to the finding and excavation of the tomb of Tutankhamun, collected by Mr F. W. Robinson and presented by Mr W. H. Peck; five brass printing plates from the production of Penelope Fox, Tutankhamun’s Treasure (London: Oxford University Press, 1951), presented by Mrs S. Woodhouse; and two further sets entitled 'Discovering TutAnkhAmun in 3D: Stereoscopic Installation Photographs of the Ashmolean Exhibition, 24 July – 2 November, 2014' created and presented by Ms J. Navratil.
      (December 18, 2016)

      Accessions of the Griffith Institute Archive 1990-2014

      Thursday, December 17, 2015

      Newly Online at the CHS: Malcolm Davies, The Theban Epics

      Malcolm Davies, The Theban Epics
      Cover Davies



      New Digital Publication from ISAW: Anna Lucille Boozer (2015). Amheida II. A Late Romano-Egyptian House in the Dakhla Oasis: Amheida House B2

      Anna Lucille Boozer (2015). Amheida II. A Late Romano-Egyptian House in the Dakhla Oasis: Amheida House B2

      This document is part of the online version of the book Amheida II: A Late Romano-Egyptian House in the Dakhla Oasis / Amheida House B2 by Anna Lucille Boozer, which is available at http://dlib.nyu.edu/awdl/isaw/amheida-ii-house-b2/. It is published as part of the NYU Library's Ancient World Digital Library and in partnership with the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World (ISAW). Further information about ISAW's publication program is available on the ISAW website. Please note that while the base URI of this publication is stable, the exact content available at that address is likely to change over time.
      Creative Commons License
      Text and images ©2015. Distributed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution - NonCommercial 4.0 License.

      AMHEIDA II

      by

      Anna Lucille Boozer

      With contributions from Douglas V. Campana, Angela Cervi, Pam J. Crabtree, Paola Davoli, Delphine Dixneuf, David Ratzan, Giovanni Ruffini, Ursula Thanheiser, and Johannes Walter

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
      Boozer, Anna Lucille, 1977-
      A late Romano-Egyptian house in the Dakhla Oasis : Amheida house B2 / by Anna Lucille Boozer ; with contributions from Douglas V. Campana, Angela Cervi, Pam J. Crabtree, Paola Davoli, Delphine Dixneuf, David Ratzan, Giovanni Ruffini, Ursula Thanheiser, and Johannes Walter.
      pages cm -- (Amheida ; II)
      Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
      ISBN 978-1-4798-8034-8 (cloth : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-1-4798-4223-0 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-4798-8187-1 (ebook)
      1. Dakhla Oasis (Egypt)--Antiquities. 2. Excavations (Archaeology)--Egypt--Dakhla Oasis. I. Title. DT73.D33B66 2014
      932'.2--dc23
      2014036022
      ISBN 978-1479880348 (cloth)

      ISBN 978-1479842230 (ebook)
      ISBN 978-1479881871 (ebook)

      TABLE OF CONTENTS



      See all Publications at ISAW

      Gāndhārī Language and Literature

      Gāndhārī Language and Literature
       



       
      Gāndhārī is a northwestern Middle Indo‐Aryan language closely related to Sanskrit and Pali, attested in use from the third century BCE to the fifth century CE. It served as one of the most important vehicles for early Buddhist literature and was instrumental in the spread of Buddhism to China in the second century CE. Gāndhārī was also an important administrative language, attested in hundreds of coin legends and close to a thousand secular documents, and some examples of non‐Buddhist literary texts in Gāndhārī have likewise been found. In the course of their history, Gāndhārī language and literature spread from their homeland in the Peshawar valley as far as Mathura in the south, Bamiyan in the west, Luoyang in the east and Kucha in the north. Over the last fifteen years, the discovery of large numbers of new manuscript and epigraphical sources have greatly enriched our knowledge of Gāndhārī. Gandhari.org provides resources for those engaged in the study of Gāndhārī, including three reference works edited by Stefan Baums and Andrew Glass (A Dictionary of Gāndhārī, the Bibliography of Gāndhārī Studies and the Catalog of Gāndhārī Texts) and a comprehensive collection of source texts.
        Catalog : Bibliography : Dictionary : Blog Contact : Login


      Wednesday, December 16, 2015

      Invitation: 2016 Meeting of the Forum for Classics, Libraries, and Scholarly Communication

      The Forum for Classics, Libraries, and Scholarly Communication (FCLSC) will meet during the SCS/AIA meetings on Thursday, January 7, 2016 from 2:00-4:00 pm. The meeting room is Union Square 16, inside the Hilton San Francisco Union Square Hotel.

      The Forum brings together people interested in the intersection between  classical studies, libraries, and scholarly communication, in order to  promote timely exchange of information and ideas. Members also collaborate on projects of mutual concern. As an officially affiliated  group of the American Philological  Association, the Forum aims to support initiatives of  the APA relating to libraries and scholarly communication.
      List of Members | Bylaws
      Agenda items include an introduction and update on a new instructional initiative and a report on the further development of the Open Greek and Latin Project which took some important steps forward earlier this Fall.

      Any Forum members who wish to contribute agenda items should contact Colin McCaffrey, chair.

      FCLSC welcomes any and all who are interested.

      Tuesday, December 15, 2015

      A Bibliography of Semitic Linguistics (1940-2012) By Gregorio del Olmo Lete

      [First posted in AWOL 15 October 2014, updated (new URLs) 15 December 2015]

      A Bibliography of Semitic Linguistics (1940-2012)
      Gregorio del Olmo Lete
      http://www.aulaorientalis.org/semiticbibliography/images/buttons/head.gif
      It seems obligatory at the beginning of this bibliography to set out its limits and justify its objectives. The aim of the bibliography is to collect and arrange systematically only those studies directly or mainly related to subjects of Semitic linguistics, namely, those centered on the study of languages and their phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic constituents, from both the comparative perspective(close and distant relationship) and the immanent perspective (grammar and lexicon). Consequently, all other studies dealing with the history of the societies which use or used those languages and with everything that is built on them (socio-political history, literature, religion and ‘culture’ in general), remain excluded.

      This limitation may seem impossible or at the very least without justification and minimalist, in some way resorting to ‘formalism’, giving up the basic element, whose development a language has to perform, namely, the shaping of a universe of social representations, which generates a particular way of communication and creativity. One could say that it means abandoning the ‘context’ in which every linguistic formulation has its meaning, being at the same time its outcome. But we cannot forget, in answer to such an objection, that our purpose has a fixed point of support: it is constructed exclusively on ‘texts’ as the products of language, which are the reference point for testing and validating results. And if it is true that ‘the proposition is the world’ (Wittgenstein), then linguistic analysis is the basis for the understanding of any representation.

      Our intention is to provide specialist information that arranges and classifies as much as possible the vast amount of data constantly presented by the general bibliography on Semitic languages and cultures. In this way, access to such information will be made easier, with better focus on the more important issues of research. At the same time we intend to collect the information and classify it in a uniform manner, in this way making it possible to compare across languages the research being carried out within the various languages, since such research often ignores other languages.

      The first installment is devoted to general topics in respect of the Semitic family as a whole. In this connexion, studies dealing with its relationship to other linguistic groups and families (Nostratic, Hamitic or Afro-Asiatic) will be taken into account in as much as they bear on the study of Semitics proper. Here, Nostratic is taken in its wider meaning, as used today among Indo-European scholars. In order to avoid any prejudgements, in successive installments we will offer linguistic bibliographies for each Semitic language as well as for each Semitic language family according to its name, without attempting to decide on its suitability or incorporate it within a particular preferred classification. This is precisely one of the problems the present bibliographical tool aims to address. The series will include the following headings: [East and North Semitic], Akkadian, Eblaite, Amorite, Ugaritic, [Northwest Semitic/Canaanite],Phoenician, Hebrew, Aramaic/Syriac, South Semitic, Old (Epigraphic) North and South Arabian, Modern South-Arabian, Arabic and Ethiopic, both classic and modern, the pertinent dialectal variations being included under the appropriate heading.The steady general bibliographical references are ordered, to easy their use, according to titles instead of authors, which may vary along the years. Otherwise, the alphabetic order according to author’s name is followed.

      The cross-references to the individual bibliographies of each of these languages and groups of languages are essential for extracting full information on a specific linguistic issue at either a general or a comparative level. In the first installment, any comparison of (at least two) languages is noted. When the title specifies the language compared, the item will be repeated in the corresponding bibliography (“Comparative Level”). Unlike the other topics, where the aim is to be exhaustive, the Bibliography on Semitic lexicography has been kept within less strict limits, otherwise the task would have been endless.

      Studies or references to particular lexemes have not been recorded in the installment devoted to Common Semitics, unless they bear on comparative issues. In principle, only treatments of ‘roots’ or ‘semantic fields’ have been taken into account. Nevertheless, the criterion has not always been applied stringently, since often it is difficult to draw the line between particular and comparative treatments. In the other installments, devoted to particular languages, concrete lexemes also have been recorded, although in a non exhaustive way. In any case, this section of the bibliography has to be taken as merely indicative and perfunctory, and reference to up-to-date lexicographic records is unavoidable. A thorough lexicographical entry should even include reference to the main studies on editions and commentaries on the texts, where the particular lexeme appears, but such textual studies have not been included. As for book reviews, only the most significant that appeared in the last years have been listed.

      Barcelona, 04/17/2014
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      Monday, December 14, 2015

      Open Access Journal: Proceedings of the British Academy: Open Access Archive of Volumes 51-111

      Proceedings of the British Academy: Open Access Archive of Volumes 51-111
      ISSN: 0068-1202
      This is an open access archive of Proceedings of the British Academy volumes 51-111.

      The British Academy is the UK's national academy for the humanities and social sciences. Since 1905 its Proceedings series has provided a unique record of British scholarship in these disciplines.

      This archive contains downloadable PDF files of papers published in Proceedings volumes 51-111 (published between 1966 and 2002).

      There are over 1,100 articles, totalling 25,000 pages of text.
      The Proceedings of the British Academy series continues to publish themed volumes of essays that drive scholarship forward and are landmarks in their field. Papers in Volumes 112 onwards are available electronically within British Academy Scholarship Online
      Volumes relating to Antiquity are as follows:

      110. The Origin of Human Social Institutions 2001
      104. Greek Personal Names: Their Value as Evidence 2000
      99. World Prehistory: Studies in Memory of Grahame Clark 1999
      96. Agriculture in Egypt, From Pharaonic to Modern Times 1999
      93. Aspects of the Language of Latin Poetry 1999
      92. Science and Stonehenge 1997
      86. Social Complexity and the Development of Towns in Iberia, From the Copper Age to the Second Century AD 1995
      7. New Developments in Archaeological Science 1992

      There are also many essays relating to antiquity in earlier volumes:

      76. 1990 Lectures and Memoirs 1991
      75. 1989 1990
      74. 1988 1989
      73. 1987 1988
      72. 1986 1987
      71. 1985 1986
      70. 1984 1985
      69. 1983 1984
      68. 1982 1983
      67. 1981 1982
      66. 1980 1982
      65. 1979 1981
      64. 1978 1980
      63. 1977 1978
      62. 1976 1977
      61. 1975 1976
      60. 1974 1975
      59. 1973 1975
      58. 1972 1974
      57. 1971 1973
      56. 1970 1972
      55. 1969 1971
      54. 1968 1970
      53. 1967 1968
      52. 1966 1967
      51. 1965 1966

      A Comprehensive Introduction to Nostratic Comparative Linguistics

      A Comprehensive Introduction to Nostratic Comparative Linguistics (2nd edition — revised as of October 2015) (4 volumes, 2,562 pages, combined into a single PDF).

      By 

      The latest in-depth treatment by Allan R. Bomhard of the Nostratic Hypothesis (2nd edition 2015). All aspects (phonology, morphology, vocabulary, homelands, etc.) of Nostratic are covered. Voluminous references are given to the relevant literature.

      Friday, December 11, 2015

      Open Access Monograph Series: Archaeological Survey of Nubia

      Archaeological Survey of Nubia

      antiquist: a heritage computing community

      antiquist: a heritage computing community

      About

      Welcome to Antiquist.
      We are an online community of people working with computing in the heritage sector.
      Antiquist is primarily a communication network - a way for us all to talk, argue, experiment, share ideas, and solve common problems.

      Who is Antiquist?

      Antiquist members include archaeologists, museum professionals, historians, and other interested people.

      How do we communicate?

      We communicate primarily via a Google Groups email list. We also have a wiki, a blog, and some server space to try out new ideas and build new resources.
      We also meet from time to time at events known as ArchCamp. The format of these meetings is open, allowing for demonstrations, discussion, and practical sessions.

      Joining

      If you’d like to join the conversation, head over to the Antiquist Google Group to sign up. You don’t need to work in the heritage sector, just a healthy interest in computing and heritage, and the will to get involved.

      Open Access Monograph Series: The Royal Cemeteries of Kush

      The Royal Cemeteries of Kush
      Published for the Museum of Fine Arts by Harvard University Press
      v. 1. El Kurru
      v. 2. Nuri
      v. 3. Decorated chapels of the Meroitic pyramids at Meroë and Barkal
      v. 4. Royal tombs at Meroë and Barkal
      v. 5. The west and south cemeteries at Meroe

      Thursday, December 10, 2015

      Open Access Journal: KUSH : Journal of the National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums (NCAM)

      KUSH: Journal of the National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums (NCAM)
      ISSN: 0454-6989 [Formerly Kush : journal of the Sudan Antiquities Service ISSN: 0075-7349]

      sfdas : Section française de la direction des antiquités du Soudan

      Published by the National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports, The Republic of the Sudan
      Founded in 1967 at the initiative of Jean Vercoutter, the SFDAS was officially created in 1969. It was successively run by André Vila (1969-1975), Francis Geus (1975-1984), Jacques Reinold (1984-2000), Francis Geus (2000-2004), Vincent Rondot (2005-2009), Claude Rilly (2009-2014) and, since September 2014, by Vincent Francigny. In charge of cooperating with the Sudanese Department of Antiquities in its field activities (excavations and prospection), the SFDAS took part in the last rescue operations of the Nubian campaign which preceded the water impoundment in the Aswan dam reservoir. It then pursued the systematic inventory of the sites of the Nile Valley south of the lake. It has also conducted several planned excavations, namely on the sites of Missiminia (Napatan, Meroitic, X-group and Christian necropolis), Kadada (Neolithic, Meroitic and post-Meroitic necropolis), Kadruka (Neolithic funeral mound) and El-Hobagi (post-Meroitic burial mound).

      Kush I : PDF - 32.5 Mb Kush II : PDF - 24.9 Mb Kush III : PDF - 36.9 Mb